Executive Summary 概述

Type 441 mining cables manufactured to AS/NZS 2802:2000 standards serve as critical power delivery infrastructure for mobile mining equipment in some of Earth’s most environmentally challenging locations. The selection of appropriate sheath materials for these cables carries significant implications for operational reliability, safety, and total cost of ownership. The Australian surface mining industry, particularly in regions such as the Pilbara in Western Australia, subjects electrical cables to environmental extremes that test the limits of material engineering. Temperatures regularly exceeding 50 degrees Celsius combined with intense ultraviolet radiation create a formidable challenge for cable outer sheaths[1][2]. 按照AS/NZS 2802:2000标准制造的441型矿用电缆在地球上一些环境最具挑战性的地点为移动采矿设备提供关键的电力输送基础设施。这些电缆的适当护套材料的选择对运营可靠性、安全性和总拥有成本具有重大影响。

The AS/NZS 2802:2000 standard explicitly permits multiple sheath material options for Type 441 cables, including extra-heavy-duty chlorosulphonated polyethylene (designated XHD-90-CSP), chlorinated polyethylene (designated XHD-90-CPE), and polychloroprene (designated XHD-85-PCP)[3][4]. This material flexibility enables manufacturers and end users to optimize cable specifications based on specific application requirements and environmental conditions. However, this flexibility also necessitates careful technical understanding of each material’s performance characteristics under extreme operational scenarios. AS/NZS 2802:2000标准明确允许441型电缆使用多种护套材料选项,包括超重型氯磺化聚乙烯(指定为XHD-90-CSP)、氯化聚乙烯(指定为XHD-90-CPE)和聚氯丁橡胶(指定为XHD-85-PCP)。

While chlorosulphonated polyethylene (CSP) represents the most commonly specified sheath material for Type 441 cables due to its superior balance of mechanical protection and chemical resistance, chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) offers certain advantages including potentially lower cost and good environmental durability[5][6]. The critical question facing mining operations in regions experiencing what might be termed “extremely high UV” exposure—particularly the Pilbara and similar Australian mining regions—centers on whether CPE sheaths provide adequate ultraviolet radiation resistance for long-term reliable operation without premature degradation that could compromise cable integrity. 虽然氯磺化聚乙烯(CSP)由于其机械保护和化学抗性的优越平衡而代表了441型电缆最常指定的护套材料,但氯化聚乙烯(CPE)提供某些优势,包括潜在的较低成本和良好的环境耐久性。

This comprehensive analysis examines the ultraviolet resistance properties of chlorinated polyethylene sheath materials, evaluates the extreme UV exposure conditions characteristic of Australian surface mining environments, compares CPE performance against the industry-preferred CSP alternative, and provides evidence-based guidance for cable sheath material selection in demanding mining applications. Understanding these technical considerations enables informed specification decisions that balance initial cost against long-term performance and reliability requirements. 这一综合分析检查了氯化聚乙烯护套材料的抗紫外线性能,评估了澳大利亚露天采矿环境特有的极端紫外线暴露条件,比较了CPE性能与行业首选的CSP替代品,并为苛刻的采矿应用中的电缆护套材料选择提供基于证据的指导。

Understanding Australian Surface Mining UV Conditions 理解澳大利亚露天采矿紫外线条件

The Pilbara Mining Region Environmental Profile 皮尔巴拉采矿地区环境概况

The Pilbara region of northwestern Western Australia represents one of the world’s most significant iron ore producing areas, accounting for a substantial portion of global iron ore exports. This mineral-rich region also ranks among Earth’s most environmentally extreme locations for industrial operations. The town of Marble Bar, located within the Pilbara, holds the distinction of recording temperatures exceeding 37.8 degrees Celsius on 160 consecutive days during a historic 1923-1924 heatwave, a world record that underscores the severity of regional thermal conditions[7]. Contemporary temperature data confirms this pattern continues, with daytime temperatures from October through May routinely exceeding 49 degrees Celsius in many Pilbara mining locations[7]. 西澳大利亚西北部的皮尔巴拉地区代表了世界上最重要的铁矿石生产区之一,占全球铁矿石出口的很大一部分。这个矿产丰富的地区也是地球上工业作业环境最极端的地点之一。

The extreme thermal environment combines with exceptional ultraviolet radiation exposure to create particularly challenging conditions for electrical infrastructure. The Pilbara receives the highest hours of sunshine annually of any Australian region, resulting in sustained and intense UV radiation throughout the operational year[8]. The clear skies and minimal cloud cover characteristic of the semi-arid climate maximize solar radiation input to Earth’s surface, with very high evaporation rates and solar radiation levels recorded consistently[9]. Recent operational assessments have explicitly identified that “intense ultraviolet (UV) radiation significantly impacts the longevity of crane equipment” and other mining infrastructure in Australian mining regions[1]. 极端的热环境与异常的紫外线辐射暴露相结合,为电气基础设施创造了特别具有挑战性的条件。皮尔巴拉每年接收澳大利亚任何地区最高的日照时数,导致整个运营年份持续而强烈的紫外线辐射。

Climate modeling projections suggest these already extreme conditions will intensify in coming decades. Rio Tinto forecasts that under pessimistic global emissions scenarios, its Gudai-Darri operation in the eastern Pilbara will experience the number of days above 40 degrees Celsius doubling to 80 annually by mid-century. BHP Group predicts that the number of days exceeding 40 degrees Celsius in the eastern Pilbara could rise to 124 days per year by the 2070s from approximately 54 currently[2]. These projections carry significant implications for infrastructure design and material selection, as equipment and cables specified today may need to function reliably for decades under increasingly severe environmental conditions. 气候建模预测表明,这些已经极端的条件将在未来几十年加剧。力拓预测,在悲观的全球排放情景下,其位于东皮尔巴拉的古代-达里作业到本世纪中叶将经历超过40摄氏度的天数翻倍至每年80天。

UV Radiation Mechanisms and Material Degradation 紫外线辐射机制和材料降解

Ultraviolet radiation represents a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays, typically classified into three bands designated UV-A (315 to 400 nanometers), UV-B (280 to 315 nanometers), and UV-C (100 to 280 nanometers). While Earth’s atmosphere effectively blocks most UV-C radiation, UV-A and UV-B reach the surface and interact with polymeric materials through photochemical degradation processes. The energy contained within UV photons is sufficient to break chemical bonds in polymer chains, initiating oxidation reactions and cross-linking that progressively degrade material mechanical properties[10]. 紫外线辐射代表电磁光谱的特定部分,波长短于可见光但长于X射线,通常分为三个波段,称为UV-A(315至400纳米)、UV-B(280至315纳米)和UV-C(100至280纳米)。

In cable sheath materials, UV degradation manifests through several observable phenomena including surface chalking (where degraded material appears powdery), color fading (typically black materials fade to gray), surface cracking (particularly at stress concentration points such as bends), embrittlement (loss of flexibility), and eventual mechanical failure through crack propagation. The rate and severity of UV degradation depend on multiple factors including the intensity and wavelength distribution of UV exposure, ambient temperature (which accelerates chemical degradation reactions), presence of moisture, chemical environment, and critically, the specific polymer formulation including any UV stabilizing additives incorporated during manufacturing[11]. 在电缆护套材料中,紫外线降解通过几种可观察的现象表现出来,包括表面粉化(降解的材料呈现粉末状)、颜色褪色(通常黑色材料褪成灰色)、表面开裂(特别是在弯曲等应力集中点)、脆化(失去柔韧性)以及最终通过裂纹扩展导致的机械失效。

The combination of high UV intensity and elevated temperatures characteristic of Pilbara mining operations creates particularly aggressive conditions for polymer degradation. Thermal energy accelerates the rate of UV-initiated oxidation reactions, while mechanical stresses from cable flexing, dragging, and handling create stress concentration points where UV-weakened material is more likely to crack. For cables operating in continuous outdoor exposure for projected service lives of multiple years, the cumulative UV dose exposure can be substantial, making UV resistance a critical performance requirement rather than a secondary consideration. 皮尔巴拉采矿作业特有的高紫外线强度和高温的结合为聚合物降解创造了特别激进的条件。热能加速紫外线引发的氧化反应的速率,而来自电缆弯曲、拖曳和处理的机械应力在紫外线削弱的材料更可能开裂的地方创建应力集中点。

Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) Material Properties and UV Resistance CPE材料性能和抗紫外线性

CPE Chemical Structure and Formulation CPE化学结构和配方

Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) is produced through the chlorination of high-density polyethylene, resulting in a polymer containing approximately 25 to 45 percent chlorine by weight. This chlorination process introduces chlorine atoms randomly along the polymer chain, disrupting the regular crystalline structure of polyethylene and creating a more amorphous material with rubber-like properties when properly compounded. CPE exists in both thermoplastic and thermoset (cross-linked) forms, with the cross-linked version typically employed for cable sheathing applications due to its superior mechanical properties and resistance to creep under sustained loading[5][6]. 氯化聚乙烯(CPE)通过高密度聚乙烯的氯化产生,产生的聚合物按重量含有大约25%至45%的氯。这种氯化过程沿聚合物链随机引入氯原子,破坏聚乙烯的规则晶体结构。

For cable sheathing applications meeting AS/NZS 2802 specifications, CPE compounds are formulated with multiple additives to enhance performance characteristics. Carbon black, typically incorporated at concentrations of 2 to 3 percent, serves dual functions as a processing aid and critically as a UV stabilizer. Carbon black particles absorb UV radiation before it can penetrate deeply into the polymer matrix, effectively shielding internal material from photochemical degradation[11][13]. Additional UV stabilizers including hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS) and UV absorbers may be incorporated to provide enhanced protection, with properly formulated CPE cables often marked with designations such as “SUNLIGHT RESISTANT” or “SR” to indicate enhanced UV performance[11]. 对于符合AS/NZS 2802规格的电缆护套应用,CPE化合物配方使用多种添加剂以增强性能特征。炭黑通常以2%至3%的浓度掺入,具有双重功能,既是加工助剂,也是至关重要的紫外线稳定剂。

The cross-linking process for CPE sheath materials typically employs peroxide curing systems, with vulcanization achieved through continuous vulcanization (CV) tube processes or vertical autoclave methods at temperatures ranging from 180 to 220 degrees Celsius. This cross-linking creates three-dimensional polymer networks that provide enhanced mechanical strength, improved resistance to chemicals and oils, better thermal stability, and critically, improved resistance to environmental degradation including UV exposure compared to non-cross-linked thermoplastic CPE formulations[11][14]. CPE护套材料的交联过程通常采用过氧化物固化系统,通过连续硫化(CV)管工艺或垂直高压釜方法在180至220摄氏度的温度下实现硫化。

Documented CPE UV Resistance Performance 记录的CPE抗紫外线性能

Published technical literature and manufacturer data sheets consistently identify CPE as possessing good to excellent UV resistance when properly formulated with appropriate stabilizer packages. Multiple authoritative sources characterize CPE as exhibiting “excellent chemical resistance and UV resistance” and note that CPE materials offer “excellent stability under prolonged sunlight exposure when compounded with carbon black and UV stabilizers”[6][11][15]. Industry guidance explicitly states that CPE is “suitable for outdoor installations without jacketing or conduit protection” and can achieve outdoor service lives exceeding 20 years when properly formulated and applied[11]. 已发表的技术文献和制造商数据表一致认为,当使用适当的稳定剂包适当配方时,CPE具有良好到优异的抗紫外线性能。多个权威来源将CPE描述为表现出”优异的化学抗性和抗紫外线性”。

Comparative assessments note that CPE serves as a “lower-cost, more environmentally friendly alternative to CSP while coming close to achieving the chemical, flame and UV resistance” of the more expensive CSP material[5][14]. This characterization suggests that while CPE may not quite match CSP’s absolute performance levels, it approaches them sufficiently closely to warrant consideration in many applications. However, the qualifier “coming close to” rather than “matching” or “exceeding” implies some performance differential that requires evaluation in the context of specific application requirements. 比较评估指出,CPE作为”比CSP更低成本、更环保的替代品,同时接近实现更昂贵的CSP材料的化学、火焰和抗紫外线抗性”。这种描述表明,虽然CPE可能不完全匹配CSP的绝对性能水平,但它足够接近,值得在许多应用中考虑。

Field performance data indicates that CPE cables properly specified for outdoor service demonstrate good longevity in typical industrial environments. The material’s inherent characteristics including light weight, high hardness, low friction coefficient, good oil resistance, good water resistance, and excellent chemical resistance contribute to its widespread adoption in harsh industrial applications[6][15]. However, it is notable that published performance data typically references “outdoor installations” and “prolonged sunlight exposure” without specifically addressing the extreme UV intensity combined with extreme thermal conditions characteristic of regions like the Pilbara. 现场性能数据表明,适当指定用于户外服务的CPE电缆在典型工业环境中表现出良好的寿命。该材料的固有特性包括重量轻、高硬度、低摩擦系数、良好的耐油性、良好的耐水性和优异的化学抗性。

Comparative Analysis: CPE vs CSP Sheath Performance 比较分析:CPE与CSP护套性能

Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene (CSP) as the Industry Standard CSP作为行业标准

Chlorosulphonated polyethylene (CSP), also known by the trade name Hypalon, represents the most widely specified sheath material for Type 441 mining cables in demanding Australian applications. CSP is produced through the chlorination and chlorosulphonation of polyethylene, introducing both chlorine atoms and chlorosulphonyl groups along the polymer chain. This dual modification creates a material with exceptional resistance to oxidation, ozone, UV radiation, chemicals, oils, and extreme temperatures. The chlorosulphonyl groups provide superior resistance to oxidative degradation compared to CPE’s chlorine-only modification, while also enhancing flame resistance and thermal stability[16]. 氯磺化聚乙烯(CSP),也以商标名Hypalon著称,代表了在要求苛刻的澳大利亚应用中为441型矿用电缆最广泛指定的护套材料。CSP通过聚乙烯的氯化和氯磺化产生,沿聚合物链引入氯原子和氯磺酰基团。

CSP’s superior UV resistance stems from its inherent chemical structure combined with carbon black stabilization. The material demonstrates exceptional stability under prolonged UV exposure, with properly formulated CSP compounds showing minimal degradation even after years of continuous outdoor service in high-UV environments. Field experience from Australian mining operations confirms that CSP-sheathed Type 441 cables routinely achieve service lives exceeding 5 to 7 years in Pilbara surface mining applications when properly handled and maintained, with UV degradation rarely representing the primary failure mode[16]. CSP的优越抗紫外线性能源于其固有的化学结构结合炭黑稳定。该材料在长期紫外线暴露下表现出异常的稳定性,适当配方的CSP化合物即使在高紫外线环境中连续户外服务多年后也显示出最小的降解。

The AS/NZS 2802:2000 standard designates CSP sheath material as “heavy-duty” (HD-90-CSP) for Class 2 cables and “extra-heavy-duty” (XHD-90-CSP) for Class 1 cables, with the “90” designation indicating a maximum continuous operating temperature of 90 degrees Celsius[3][4]. This temperature rating aligns with the EPR insulation system used in Type 441 cables, ensuring thermal compatibility throughout the cable assembly. The extra-heavy-duty designation for Class 1 cables reflects increased sheath thickness that provides enhanced mechanical protection and potentially improved UV shielding through greater material depth. AS/NZS 2802:2000标准将CSP护套材料指定为2类电缆的”重型”(HD-90-CSP)和1类电缆的”超重型”(XHD-90-CSP),”90″名称表示最高连续操作温度为90摄氏度。

Critical Performance Differentials 关键性能差异

While both CPE and CSP offer good UV resistance when properly formulated, several critical performance differentials emerge when evaluating materials for the most extreme service conditions. CSP demonstrates superior ozone resistance compared to CPE, an important consideration in mining environments where electrical equipment generates ozone. CPE “requires careful formulation to avoid problems with ozone,” whereas CSP exhibits inherently superior ozone resistance without special formulation requirements[5]. 虽然适当配方的CPE和CSP都提供良好的抗紫外线性能,但在评估材料用于最极端的服务条件时出现了几个关键的性能差异。与CPE相比,CSP表现出优越的抗臭氧性。

The synergistic effects of extreme UV radiation and extreme thermal cycling present particular challenges. While CPE’s specified temperature range of negative 20 to positive 105 degrees Celsius appears adequate for Pilbara conditions where ambient temperatures reach 50 degrees Celsius, the cable sheath surface temperature under direct solar radiation can exceed ambient temperature substantially due to solar heating. Dark-colored cable sheaths can experience surface temperatures 20 to 30 degrees Celsius above ambient when exposed to direct sunlight, potentially approaching or exceeding CPE’s upper temperature limit during peak conditions[12]. 极端紫外线辐射和极端热循环的协同效应带来了特殊的挑战。虽然CPE指定的负20至正105摄氏度的温度范围似乎足以应对环境温度达到50摄氏度的皮尔巴拉条件,但在直接太阳辐射下,电缆护套表面温度可能由于太阳加热而大大超过环境温度。

The documented characterization that CPE “comes close to achieving” CSP’s UV resistance suggests a performance gap that may be inconsequential in moderate UV environments but could become significant under the extreme and sustained UV exposure characteristic of Pilbara surface mining. The absence of specific published data quantifying CPE performance under combined extreme UV and extreme thermal conditions represents a critical knowledge gap. While CPE may perform adequately in typical outdoor industrial applications experiencing moderate UV exposure, the extrapolation to “extremely high UV” conditions requires validation through either accelerated aging testing simulating Pilbara conditions or actual field performance data from similar extreme environments[5]. 文献记录的特征表明CPE”接近实现”CSP的抗紫外线性能,这表明在中等紫外线环境中可能无关紧要的性能差距,但在皮尔巴拉露天采矿特有的极端和持续紫外线暴露下可能变得显著。

Technical Assessment: Does CPE Meet “Extremely High UV” Requirements? 技术评估:CPE是否满足”极高紫外线”要求?

Defining “Extremely High UV” Conditions 定义”极高紫外线”条件

The phrase “extremely high UV” requirements does not appear as a formally defined technical classification within AS/NZS 2802:2000 or related cable standards. Rather, it represents a descriptive characterization of the environmental conditions present in regions like the Pilbara where UV intensity significantly exceeds levels encountered in temperate climates or typical industrial settings. To evaluate whether CPE sheath materials meet these requirements, we must establish operational definitions based on actual environmental parameters and cable performance expectations. “极高紫外线”要求这一短语在AS/NZS 2802:2000或相关电缆标准中并未作为正式定义的技术分类出现。相反,它代表了对皮尔巴拉等地区存在的环境条件的描述性特征,这些地区的紫外线强度显著超过温带气候或典型工业环境中遇到的水平。

Australian mining regions experiencing what might reasonably be termed “extremely high UV” conditions exhibit several characteristic features. These include sustained high ambient temperatures regularly exceeding 40 to 50 degrees Celsius for extended periods, annual sunshine hours among the highest globally with minimal cloud cover, direct solar radiation exposure for cables deployed in open-cut mining environments without overhead protection, and minimal seasonal variation with high UV intensity maintained year-round rather than limited to summer months. The combination of these factors creates cumulative UV dose exposures substantially higher than those encountered in typical outdoor industrial applications in temperate regions[1][2][7]. 可以合理称为”极高紫外线”条件的澳大利亚采矿地区表现出几个特征。这些包括持续的高环境温度,定期超过40至50摄氏度并持续较长时间,年日照时数在全球最高之列,云层覆盖最少。

Cable performance expectations in these environments must consider service life requirements typically spanning 3 to 7 years for trailing cable applications, with cables potentially experiencing 24 hours per day, 7 days per week exposure to solar radiation during equipment operational periods. The sheath must maintain sufficient mechanical integrity throughout service life to prevent moisture ingress, conductor exposure, or safety hazards, while UV-induced degradation should not be the primary life-limiting failure mode. Economic considerations require that cable replacement cycles align with planned maintenance schedules rather than forcing premature replacement due to accelerated environmental degradation[16]. 这些环境中的电缆性能期望必须考虑拖曳电缆应用通常跨越3至7年的使用寿命要求,电缆在设备运行期间可能每天24小时、每周7天暴露于太阳辐射。

Evidence-Based Performance Assessment 基于证据的性能评估

Evaluating whether CPE sheaths meet extremely high UV requirements requires examining available evidence across multiple dimensions. From a materials science perspective, properly formulated CPE compounds with adequate carbon black loading (typically 2 to 3 percent) and additional UV stabilizers demonstrate good UV resistance suitable for typical outdoor applications. The carbon black provides primary UV protection through radiation absorption, while UV stabilizers scavenge free radicals generated by UV exposure that would otherwise propagate degradation reactions[11][13]. 评估CPE护套是否满足极高紫外线要求需要从多个维度检查可用证据。从材料科学角度来看,具有足够炭黑负载(通常为2%至3%)和额外紫外线稳定剂的适当配方CPE化合物表现出良好的抗紫外线性能,适用于典型的户外应用。

The critical limitation in the available evidence base is the absence of specific published field performance data for CPE-sheathed cables operating under conditions matching Pilbara intensity. While general statements affirm CPE’s UV resistance and suitability for outdoor installations, these typically reference moderate climate outdoor applications rather than the extreme combined UV and thermal stress characteristic of Australian desert mining regions. The documented reality that CSP sheaths “come close to achieving” rather than matching CSP performance suggests CPE may experience accelerated degradation under extreme conditions compared to the industry-preferred CSP alternative[5]. 可用证据基础中的关键限制是缺乏在匹配皮尔巴拉强度的条件下操作的CPE护套电缆的特定已发表现场性能数据。虽然一般声明肯定了CPE的抗紫外线性能和适用于户外安装,但这些通常参考中等气候户外应用,而不是澳大利亚沙漠采矿地区特有的极端综合紫外线和热应力。

Industry specification practice provides revealing insight into performance expectations. Major cable manufacturers serving Australian mining markets predominantly specify CSP sheaths for Type 441 cables despite CPE’s economic and environmental advantages. This preference pattern suggests that when reliability under extreme conditions is paramount—as it is in remote mining operations where cable failure creates costly equipment downtime—the incremental cost of CSP is justified by superior performance assurance. If CPE definitively met all performance requirements under extremely high UV conditions, economic incentives would likely drive broader adoption given its lower cost structure[16][17]. 行业规格实践为性能期望提供了揭示性的洞察。为澳大利亚采矿市场服务的主要电缆制造商主要为441型电缆指定CSP护套,尽管CPE具有经济和环境优势。

Application Recommendations and Best Practices 应用建议和最佳实践

Mining operations specifying Type 441 cables for Australian surface mining applications should consider several factors when evaluating sheath material options. For operations in the Pilbara, northern Western Australia, northern Queensland, or other regions experiencing extreme UV exposure combined with sustained high temperatures, chlorosulphonated polyethylene (CSP) sheaths represent the most conservative and technically justified specification. The superior UV resistance, ozone resistance, and thermal aging characteristics of CSP provide optimal assurance of cable longevity under these demanding conditions, justifying the incremental cost through reduced replacement frequency and enhanced operational reliability[16]. 为澳大利亚露天采矿应用指定441型电缆的采矿作业在评估护套材料选项时应考虑几个因素。对于皮尔巴拉、西澳北部、昆士兰北部或其他经历极端紫外线暴露结合持续高温的地区的作业,氯磺化聚乙烯(CSP)护套代表最保守和技术上合理的规格。

For mining operations in less extreme UV environments—such as underground applications, locations with substantial cloud cover, regions experiencing milder temperatures, or installations where cables receive some environmental protection—CPE sheaths may provide adequate performance at lower cost. The economic advantage of CPE combined with its good environmental resistance characteristics make it a viable option for applications not experiencing the full severity of Pilbara-level environmental stress. Specification decisions should include site-specific environmental assessment considering actual UV exposure, temperature ranges, and operational duty cycles[5][14]. 对于在较不极端的紫外线环境中的采矿作业——例如地下应用、具有大量云层覆盖的位置、经历较温和温度的地区或电缆获得一些环境保护的安装——CPE护套可能以较低成本提供足够的性能。

Regardless of sheath material selection, operational practices significantly impact cable service life under UV exposure. Implementing proper cable handling procedures to minimize mechanical damage that creates stress concentration points accelerates UV degradation. Regular visual inspection programs should identify early signs of sheath degradation including surface chalking, color fading, or cracking. Maintaining appropriate cable routing to minimize unnecessary UV exposure where practical provides additional protection. For critical power distribution circuits where cable failure would create substantial operational impact, specifying CSP sheaths provides superior risk mitigation regardless of incremental cost considerations[11][12]. 无论护套材料选择如何,操作实践显著影响紫外线暴露下的电缆使用寿命。实施适当的电缆处理程序以最小化机械损坏,这会创建加速紫外线降解的应力集中点。

References 参考文献

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